女性生殖器切割
世卫组织的分类
类型一
世卫组织定义的女性器切除类型一指部分或全部切除阴蒂以及阴蒂包皮。
类型一甲:仅切除阴蒂包皮。
类型一乙:切除阴蒂和阴蒂包皮。
类型二
世卫组织定义的女性器切除类型二指部分或全部切除阴蒂和小阴唇,有时也切除大阴唇。
类型二甲:仅切除小阴唇。
类型二乙:部分或全部切除阴蒂和小阴唇。
类型二丙:部分或全部切除阴蒂、小阴唇和大阴唇。
类型三:切割缝合
世卫组织定义的女性器切除类型三指的是所有外生殖器,也就是内、外阴唇和阴蒂全部切除并缝合下体,留下一个小洞(2–3毫米)以通过尿液和经血。伤口通过手术线缝合,比较落后的地区用龙舌兰的茎或者草绳绑住女孩的腿直到2–6周后让伤口自动愈合。根据苏丹1982年的一项研究,鸡蛋和糖可以用作粘合剂。
类型三甲:切除缝合小阴唇。
类型三乙,切除缝合大阴唇。
类型四: 其它
所有其它女性器切除统归为类型四,有些未必切除肉组织。世卫组织定义的女性器切除类型四指“所有其它无医疗目的的损害女性器的手术”。如刺、刮、烧灼。另有一种处女膜切开术也包括在内,去除太厚的处女膜,主要在西非的豪萨族实施。但并不包括变性手术。
流行地区
大赦国际估计全世界有1.3亿妇女接受了女性器切除,每年二百万妇女接受性器切除。女性器切除主要流行于非洲,西起塞内加尔,东抵埃塞俄比亚海岸,北达埃及,南至坦桑尼亚。阿拉伯半岛的部分人群中也有此风。此风最甚的国家是埃及,其后依次是苏丹、埃塞俄比亚和马里。埃及近年立法禁止女性器切除。
对全球有多少女性受到外生殖器切割的估计,这一数字在7000万到1亿4000万人之间。在非洲,估计每年有大约300万年轻女子受到这种手段的威胁。 这种习俗还存在于亚洲和中东,甚至在欧洲、澳大利亚、加拿大、新西兰以及美国的一些移民社区也仍存在,尽管范围较小。
联合国儿童基金会的研究表明,来自埃及、埃塞俄比亚、肯尼亚、塞内加尔以及苏丹等5个非洲国家的数据显示,在消除女性外生殖器切割的做法上出现了进步。这种伤害性的习俗在埃及、埃塞俄比亚和苏丹普遍存在,但是在肯尼亚及塞内加尔这种做法仅出现在某些特定人群之中。联合国儿童基金会的研究显示,15到49岁女性的态度发生了深刻的变化。例如,这项研究表明,2000年埃塞俄比亚有60%的女性同意外生殖器切割的做法,而5年以后的调查数据显示,这个百分比 已经下降了一半。与此同时在埃及和苏丹,赞同这种习俗的人数明显减少,而在肯尼亚和塞内加尔,否定这种做法的态度则已经非常普遍了。但是联合国儿童基金会发言人梅尔卡多说,不少家庭不愿意放弃切割生殖器的传统,因为他们认为这种做法有利于他们女儿。主要原因是,将自己女儿性器切割可以在某种意义上真正为他们的家庭带来经济及社会的安全保障。他们要保证自己的女儿能被社会接受,嫁人和过正常生活。在很多这种习俗通行的文化中,不进行切割,就会受到歧视。
文献书目
- Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, February 7). Islamic ruling on female circumcision. Retrieved March 29, 2006.
- Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, December 13). Circumcision: Juristic, medical & social perspectives. Retrieved March 29, 2006.
- Boyle, E. H. (2002). Female genital cutting: Cultural conflict in the global community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7063-7.
- Dettwyler, Katherine A. (1994). Dancing skeletons: life and death in West Africa. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 0-88133-748-X.
- Ferguson, I and Ellis, P. (1995). Female Genital Mutilation: a Review of the Current Literature Department of Justice, Canada. Working document
- Gruenbaum, E. (2001). The female circumcision controversy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1746-9.
- Hoffman, B. (2002). Womanhood and Circumcision: Three Maasai women have their say. Berkeley: Berkeley Media.
- Hrzán, Daniela. (Re)Discovering FGC: Anthropology, Whiteness, Feminism. In: Tißberger, Martina/ Dietze, Gabriele/ Hrzán, Daniela/ Husmann-Kastein, Jana (eds.). Weiß – Weißsein – Whiteness: Kritische Studien zu Gender und Rassismus/Critical Studies on Gender and Racism. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2006, pp. 113–142.
- Johnson, Michelle C. (2000). Becoming a Muslim, Becoming a person: Female 'circumcision', religious identity, and personhood in Guinea-Bissau. In B. Shell-Duncan & Y. Herlund (Eds.), Female circumcision in Africa: Culture, controversy, and change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
- Kandela, P. (1995, January). Egypt sees U turn on female circumcision. British Medical Journal, 310, 12.
- Kassindja, F. (1998). Do they hear you when you cry. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-38531-832-4.
- Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf (2003). The health consequences of female circumcision: Science, advocacy, and standards of evidence. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(3), 394-412. PMID 12974204.
- Pieters, G., & Lowenfels A. B. (1977). Infibulation in the horn of Africa. New York State Journal of Medicine, 77(5), 729-31. PMID 265433.
- Research papers from medical gynecologists, judges, linguistics, and social scientists on the subject (1994). University of Khartoum, Sudan. Umm Atteya Organization website (Arabic). Retrieved March 29, 2006.
- UNICEF (1999). Consultation on the elimination of female genital mutilation: 14 December-16 December 1998. New York: Author. 40 pp.
- World Health Organization. (1996). Female genital mutilation: Report of a WHO Technical Working Group (unpublished document WHO/FRH/WHD/96.10). Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
出版物
- Aldeeb, Sami (2000). Male and Female Circumcision in the Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities, Religious debate. Beirut, ISBN 1855134063.
- Daw, E. (1970). Female circumcision and infibulation complicating delivery. Practitioner, 204(222), 559-63. .
- Dewhurst, C.J., & Michelson, A. (1964). Infibulation complicating pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 2(5422), 1442. .
- Dirie, Waris (2001). Desert Flower. Autobiography of a Somali woman's journey from nomadic tribal life to a career as a fashion model in London and to the post of special ambassador at the United Nations. Dirie recounts her personal experience with female genital mutilation that began with circumcision at age five.
- Leonard, Lori (2000). We did it for pleasure only: Hearing alternative tales of female circumcision. Qualitative Inquiry, 6(2), 212-228.
- Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the veil: Male-female dynamics in a modern Muslim society. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Pub. Co. ISBN 0-470-59613-9.
- Mustafa, Asim Zaki (1966). Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth, 73(2), 302–306. .
- Robinett, Patricia (2006). The rape of innocence: One woman's story of female genital mutilation in the USA. N.p.: Aesculapius Press. ISBN 1-878411-04-7.